Tutoring Handbook

Grades K-8

 Watauga County Schools

Appalachian State University

Reich College of Education

Boone, North Carolina

Table of Contents

Getting Started……………………………………………………….	1
Getting to Know Your School……………………………..	2
Getting to Know the Classroom Teacher………………..	2
Getting to Know the Students…………………………….	3
Assessment…………………………………………………………..	5
ASU Word Recognition…………………………………..	5
Spelling…………………………………………………….	8
The Reading Lesson………………………………………………...	10
The Phases of a Reading Lesson………………………	11
Directed Reading Thinking Activity……………………..	12
Questioning Strategies………………………………………………	28
Graphic Organizers………………………………………………….	37
KWL……………………………………………………….	38
Time Lines………………………………………………..	39
Story Maps……………………………………………….	40
Diagrams…………………………………………………	41
Character Maps………………………………………….	42
Concept Maps……………………………………………	43
Venn Diagram……………………………………………	44
Sociogram…………………………….………………….	45
Compare/Contrast Diagram……………………………	46
Discussion Strategies………………………………………………..	47
North Carolina End – of – Grade Testing Information……………	50
Appendix………………………………………………………………	55

GETTING

STARTED

Getting Started

As we strive to improve the literacy levels of all students in all grades, the need for quality tutoring is growing. By working in coordination with the classroom teacher, tutors are a great resource in assisting children who are experiencing difficulty in the language arts program. In this chapter are tips to help you get started.

Getting to Know Your School

One way to become more comfortable with your tutoring environment is to take time to become familiar with the school. Some things to keep in mind as you get to know your school include:

q Do I know the layout of the school?

§ Make sure you know where the office, cafeteria, media center, gym, and restrooms are located.

§ If a tour is not provided, ask the teacher you are assisting if a student may give you a tour.

q What do the different bells mean? (fire drill, change of classes)

q What are the procedures for a fire? Tornado?

q When I enter the building where should I sign-in? (Remember to sign-out when you are leaving school grounds.)

Getting to Know the Classroom Teacher

Once you have been assigned to work with a classroom teacher you need to set up a time to meet with the teacher. This is a time for you to learn about the teacher and his/her expectations of you. As a part of this initial meeting, you will want to discuss the following:

q Scheduling

§ Which days will I be tutoring?

§ What are the times I will be tutoring?

q Students

§ What are the needs of the students being tutored?

§ What are the goals of tutoring sessions for these students?

§ You MUST maintain CONFIDENTIALITY about the students you are tutoring. Discussions of students should occur behind closed doors with the principal or the teacher with whom you are working and always away from other students. Only at the discretion of the principal should you discuss the progress of a student with anyone besides the classroom teacher.

q Materials

§ Which materials will I be using and where will they be located?

q Place

§ Will I be working within the classroom as an assistant?

§ Will I be working with a small group in the class or in another location?

§ If I am not in the classroom, where will I tutor? (in the library, in a conference room, etc.)

q Class Rules - It is important that a tutor have the same expectations for behavior as the classroom teacher.

§ What are the behavior expectations for the students?

§ What are the consequences for not meeting behavior expectations?

q Communication

§ How will you communicate plans for the day to me? (notebook, folder, index cards)

§ How can we communicate about tutoring sessions that will be the least disruptive to the classroom? (notebook, folder, index cards)

q Absences

§ If I am unable to make a tutoring session, what is the best way to notify the school?

Getting to Know Your Students

In the fourth through eighth grades most tutoring sessions will be for small groups of 3 – 6 students. Some things to remember about the students you are tutoring:

q They realize they struggle in reading and writing.

q They may be self-conscious about their learning difficulties.

q They may be embarrassed about needing special help.

q They may cover up their weakness with disruptive behaviors like clowning or excessive talking.

q They may be upset about being singled out or missing class.

Take some time, 5 – 10 minutes, to get to know your students at the first tutoring session. You may want to use the discussion guide at the end of this chapter to learn more about your students.

While working with students it is important to:

q Believe that ALL students can learn.

q Set high expectations for student behavior and work.

q Be friendly.

q Be prepared. To minimize off-task behaviors have your plans and materials ready.

q Maintain classroom rules and expectations.

q Be positive. Provide students with praise for work accomplished

q Be on time.

q Follow the lesson plans provided by the teacher.

q Give clear and specific instructions.

q Give ample time for student response.

q Be encouraging.

GETTING TO KNOW EACH OTHER

Name:________________________________________________________________

Grade: __________Age:__________Teacher:________________________________

Family members I live with:_______________________________________________

Where I live:____________________________________________________________

Birthday:_______________________________________________________________

I have: Sister(s) Brother(s) No brothers or sisters

My favorite music group:

My favorite singer:

My favorite subject in school:

My least favorite subject in school:

Three jobs I think might be interesting:

Interests and hobbies (Circle all that apply. List others in the space provided.)

Basketball Football Dance Fashion Cooking

Baseball Camping Hiking Tennis Cars

Music Shopping Art Games Soccer

I hope my tutor will

I am really good at

Two things I really like about myself are

ASSESSMENT

Some Title I tutors may be asked to conduct certain assessment items.

Assessment

One way to assist teachers is to help with the assessment of certain skills. In this chapter directions for the ASU Word Recognition Assessment and the Watauga County Spelling Assessment are provided.

It is important to remember:

· that assessments are to only be given if requested by the teacher.

· that the classroom teacher is responsible for interpreting the results of the assessment .

· the results of assessments are CONFIDENTIAL and only to be discussed with the teacher.

ASU Word Recognition Assessment

The ASU Word Recognition Assessment is an individually administered test that provides an estimate of the student’s instructional reading level. This information is used to determine where to begin reading instruction. The test measures word recognition ability in both a timed “flash” condition (1/4 second) and an untimed condition. Timed scores indicate the student’s automatic sight word knowledge. Untimed scores indicate the student’s decoding skill level. Individual responses to words reveal phonic and structural skills.

DIRECTIONS

1. Before beginning the assessment the teacher you are working with should identify the approximate reading level of the students to be assessed. With the assistance of the reading teacher determine which word list should be used to begin the assessment. Generally, the assessment would begin 2 levels below the approximate reading level.

Instructional Level	Beginning Level for Word Recognition Assessment
Below 1^st	PP
1	PP
2	P
3	1
4	2
5	3
6	4
7	5
8	6

2. Words on the lists are “flashed” using stiff cards to cover the words. Each word in turn is “flashed” or exposed for approximately ¼ of a second. If the response is correct, proceed to the next word. If the response is incorrect, separate the cards to expose the word and ask the child for another answer. After repeating the same word, or giving another response or giving no response, move on to the next word.

3. If the student fails to achieve a flash score of at least 80% of the words correct (16 words) on the first list attempted, go to the next lowest level until a score of 80% or more is achieved on the flash test.

4. Marking the Score Sheet:

¨ Correct responses on the flash receive no written mark.

¨ If the student hesitates after the flash and then gives a correct answer before the word is revealed again, mark an H in the flash column for “hesitation” and place a check (4) in the untimed column.

¨ If the student mispronounces or substitutes another word on the flash, write the actual response in the flash column.

¨ If the student does not provide a word in response to the flash, mark a 0 in the flash column. If the correct response is then provided on the untimed presentation, place a check (4) in the untimed column.

¨ If an incorrect response is provided on the untimed presentation, write the response in the untimed column. No response is recorded as a 0.

EXAMPLE:

Level : 3^rd	Flash	Untimed
1. accept	asset	0
2. favor	flavor	4
3. seal
4. buffalo	H	4
5. slipper	0	sipper

The example shows 4 incorrect responses in the flash column and 2 incorrect responses in the untimed column.

5. Stop the administration of the flash test when the student misses 11 or more words in a list.

6. Scoring the test:

¨ Each correct response represents 5%.

¨ To score each level of the test, count the number of errors in the flash column. Remember, hesitations count as errors in the flash column.

¨ For each error, subtract 5 points from a possible score of 100. For example, 6 errors would give a flash score of 70% of the words correct.

¨ To figure the untimed score, count the number of checks (4) in the untimed column. For each check, add 5 points to the flash score to arrive at the untimed score. For example, a student who scores 70% on the flash portion and gives 4 correct responses on the untimed potion would have an untimed score of 90%.

7. The highest reading level at which the student scored no less that 60% on the “flash” is the student’s predicted instructional reading level.

THE

READING

LESSON

Most tutoring sessions in grades 4 – 8 will be in small group settings outside of the classroom. During these sessions it is important for students to have a structured lesson that focuses on the skills the classroom teacher has outlined for the students. In this chapter the phases of a reading lesson are given and then a strategy that incorporates the phases is described.

The Phases of a Reading Lesson

¨ The pre-reading phase prepares students to read the selection. This phase is a time to get students interested in reading the selection, remind students of things they already know that will help them understand the selection, and give you an opportunity to pre-teach vocabulary or concepts that may be difficult. Pre-reading activities and questions give students a purpose for reading the selection. You may want to use organizational structures to help students organize information they already know about a topic.

¨ The during reading phase is the actually reading of the selection. This phase may include silent reading, reading to students, or oral reading by students. While students are reading you may stop periodically to ask questions to check for comprehension.

¨ The post-reading phase provides opportunities for students to organize information learned from the text so that they can understand what they have read. Post-reading activities can be oral and/or written. This phase provides an opportunity to use organizational structures to help students organize their understanding of the text.

Directed Reading Thinking Activities

A Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA) incorporates all three phases of the reading lesson. A DRTA involves the tutor guiding the reading so the students are led to interact with the story in an active problem-solving manner. DRTA's can be used with a variety of text (narrative text, expository text, magazines, newspapers, etc.) When using a DRTA you will prepare students to read by asking pre-reading questions. During reading the students will silently read a small manageable part of the selection and then orally answer comprehension questions, this process is repeated until the selection is completed. After reading students demonstrate their understanding of the selection through the use of an organizational structure or through oral questioning.

The following pages provide the directions for writing a Narrative DRTA, a planning sheet to help you include all aspects of a DRTA, and a sample Narrative DRTA. Beside each question is a reference to the type of question being asked if you are incorporating the Question – Answer Relationship to the DRTA. Refer to Page 30 for more information about question answer relationships (QAR).

Writing a Narrative Directed Reading Thinking Activity (DRTA)

1. Read the story. As you are reading try to be aware of your thinking processes.

Are there any potentially confusing passages?

At what points do you have enough information to make a prediction?

Are there any vocabulary words that need to be taught before reading or can the words be understood in context?

2. Write pre-reading questions.

Is there any background knowledge that should be brought out?

What prediction question can be asked based on the title and illustrations?

3. Pick stopping points in the story based upon

- the amount of silent reading that the students can handle at one time

-where the best prediction points are found

4. Reread up to the first stopping point. Write two to four questions that bring

out the central theme of the story.

Avoid questions that can be answered with simply "yes" or no."

Ask both literal and inferential questions, such as Right There, Think and Search, Author and You. (See page 25)

Ask questions that require students to locate evidence in the text.

Write a prediction question for the next selection if appropriate.

5. Reread up to each stopping point and write questions. Questions may refer

back to previous predictions.

6. At the end of the story write one-to-three discussion questions that deal with

issues brought out in the story.

Is there an organizational structure that would help students better understand the story?

Narrative Directed Reading Thinking Activity Planning Sheet

Text:

Pages to be read:

Pre-reading:

Background Questions/Graphic Organizer:

Vocabulary:

Stop 1

Questions:

Stop 2

Questions:

Stop 3

Questions:

Stop 4

Questions:

Post-Reading

Discussion Questions / Graphic Organizer:

Sample Narrative Directed Reading Thinking Activity

Text: Bridge to Terabithia by K. Patterson

Pages to be read: Chapter 1, pp. 1-8

Pre-reading:

Background Questions/Graphic Organizer:

Tell me about your best friend. What makes him or her so special?

Have you ever wanted to accomplish something that would make you feel special? Explain.

Based on the title what do you think this book is going to be about? Explain.

*After the first stop create a Family Tree Character Map.

Vocabulary:

Stop 1 page 2

Questions: (The type of questions are noted in parenthesis, for explanation see page 25.)

Who is telling the story? (AY)

Describe Jesse's family? (TS) Draw a family tree to help show relationships. You may want to include notes about each character as you read.

Why is Jesse getting up early to run? (RT)

(P) Why do you think winning was so important to Jesse?

Stop 2 page 5 paragraph 4

Questions:

Winning was important to Jesse. Why? (TS)

What have you learned about Jesse's father? (AY)

(P) Who do you think will "start in on him" when he goes in the house?

Stop 3 page 8

Questions:

Who started in on Jess when he came in? (TS)

What comments were made to give Jess a hard time about running? (TS)

How would you describe Ellie and Brenda? (AY) Use proof from book and add information to family tree.

What jobs will Jess have to complete today? (TS)

(P) "He thought later how peculiar it was that here was probably the biggest thing in his life, and he had shrugged it off as nothing." (p.8) What do you think Jess is referring to? Why do you think it will "probably be the biggest thing in his life?"

Post-Reading

Discussion Questions / Graphic Organizer:

Add information to the family tree.

Students could draw their own family tree.

Are any of you the only boy or girl in your family? Describe what that is like?

Are you the youngest? oldest? or in the middle? Describe your role in the family?

Expository Directed Reading Thinking Activity

When you are using expository text (non-fiction material) with students it is essential that you know the purpose for which you are reading. Expository text can be read for general information or for a specific purpose. If students are to read and understand how a tornado forms, then your purpose for reading is specific; but if students are reading to learn weather terms, then your purpose for reading is for general information. Pages 15 - 19 provide the directions for writing an Expository DRTA, a planning sheet, and two sample Expository DRTA's. (one is reading for specific information and the other is reading for general information ).

Writing an Expository Directed Reading Thinking Activity

1. Determine the purpose for reading the text.

Is the reading to develop general knowledge of a topic or is there specific information you want the student to read for?

2. Read the part of the text that meets your purpose. As you read try to be

aware of your thinking processes.

Are there any vocabulary words that need to be taught before reading or can the words be understood in context?

At which points is more clarification needed?

At which points do you have enough information for a discussion?

3. Plan the pre-reading.

Is there an organizational structure that will help focus the students on the topic?

What background knowledge should be brought out?

Which vocabulary should be taught before reading? How will it be taught?

4. Choose stopping points in the text based on

where the best discussion points are found

where clarification will be needed

the amount of silent reading that students can handle at one time

5. Reread to the first stopping point. Write two to four questions that focus on

the purpose of the reading. Stopping points may occur after one or two

paragraphs instead of entire pages.

Avoid questions that may be answered with simply "yes" or "no"

Ask literal and inferential questions (Right There, Think and Search, Author and You)

Ask questions that require students to locate evidence from the text

Look ahead and write 1 or 2 prediction questions.

6. Reread to each stopping point and write questions.

7. At the end of the selection ask discussion questions that deal with the content

of the passage and/or use a graphic organizer to help the student understand

the information.

Can the material be organized sequentially, in a hierarchy, through an illustration, by showing a relationship, or by comparing and contrasting?

Expository Directed Reading Thinking Activity Planning Sheet

Purpose for reading:

Text:

Pages to be read:

Pre-reading:

Background Questions/Graphic Organizer:

Vocabulary:

Stop 1

Questions:

Stop 2

Questions:

Stop 3

Questions:

Stop 4

Questions:

Post-Reading

Discussion Questions / Graphic Organizer:

Expository Directed Reading Thinking Activity Sample #1

Purpose for reading:

Sponges- where they live, how it lives, how they look (color, shape, size)

Text: Incredible Facts about the Ocean

Pages to be read: pp.69-74

Pre-reading:

Background Questions/Graphic Organizer:

Use KWL chart (see page 32) as a group

What do you KNOW about sponges?

What do you WANT to know?

Vocabulary:

Stop 1 paragraph 1

Questions:

Where can sponges by found? (TS)

What type of sponges are sold in stores? (RT)

(P) How do you think a sponge eats?

Stop 2 top of page 72

Questions:

How is a sponge different from most animals? (RT)

What must a sponge have to stay alive? (RT)

Describe how water travels through a sponge. (TS)

What is another word for holes in the skin? (RT)

What do you a sponge looks like? (Own Your Own)

Stop 3 page 74

Questions:

What sizes do sponges come in? (TS)

Describe the color of sponges I might see. (TS)

Compare and contrast the shapes of sponges. (TS)

Post-Reading

Discussion Questions / Graphic Organizer:

Finish KWL. What have you LEARNED about sponges?

Illustration (sequential):How water travels through a sponge, label the parts of the sponge

Expository Directed Reading Thinking Activity Sample #2

Purpose for reading:

Learn landform terms associated with the ocean

Text: Incredible Facts About the Ocean

Pages to be read: Chapter 1 (pp. 11-32)

Pre-reading:

Background Questions/Graphic Organizer:

Brainstorm a list of landforms

Categorize the list (concept map) into where the landforms are found (LAND or WATER)

Vocabulary:

Stop 1 page 11

Questions:

Define a continent. (RT)

Why are there more continents that continental land masses? (TS)

Give an example of a peninsula. (RT/TS)

Describe what a peninsula looks like. (RT)

(P) What are some ways the author can help you understand information?

Stop 2 page 14

Questions:

What information can we learn from the table? (RT)

How did the author organize the information to help you compare the continents? (AY)

Which continent has the most square miles? (RT)

Which continent has the least square kilometers? (RT)

Which continents are surrounded by four different bodies of water?

(P) Which island do you think is the largest in the world?

Stop 3 page 17

Questions:

What is important to know about words in bold type? (RT)

Describe the difference between an isthmus and a cape. (TS)

How is an island different from a continent? (RT)

Of the 10 largest islands which ocean has the most islands? (TS)

(P) How do you think islands are formed?

Stop 4 page 20

Questions:

Describe the formation of an island. (Ask 3 students, each must tell a different way) (RT/TS)

(Students could each choose a formation to illustrate and label)

(P) What do you think an atoll is ? Where do you think it is located?

Stop 5 page 24

Questions:

Where are most atolls found? (RT)

Using the pictures on page 23 describe the formation of an atoll? (TS)

(P) Explain how you think a delta is formed?

Stop 6 page 27

Questions:

Where are deltas found? (RT)

How are they formed? (RT)

Explain why you think the experiment is similar to how a delta is formed. (TS/AY)

(P) Tell me what you know about sand.

Stop 7 page 30

Questions:

When can a sandbar be seen? (RT)

How can I locate a sandbar I cannot see? (RT)

Why are there different colors of sand? (TS)

(P) What does the word seashore make you think about?

Stop 8 p. 32

Describe a seashore. (RT)

Other than sand what else could a beach be made of ? (TS)

Post-Reading

Discussion Questions / Graphic Organizer:

Add to the concept map.

Divide WATER landforms into two categories: Connected to Land and Not Connected to Land

K‑W‑L

1. The teacher chooses an appropriate topic and text.

2. The teacher introduces the K‑W‑L worksheet (see Figure)

3. The students brainstorm ideas about the topic.

4. The teacher writes this information on a chart or chalkboard.

5. Students write what they know under the K ("What I know") column.

6. Together, the teacher and students categorize the K column,

7. Students generate questions they would like answered about the topic and write them in the W ("What I want to learn") column.

8. Students silently read the text and add new questions to the W column.

8. After reading the selection, students complete the L ("What I learned")

column.

9. The students and teacher review the K‑W‑L sheet to tie together what

students knew and the questions they had with what they learned.

Echo reading

1. The teacher selects a text around 200 works long that is near frustration level reading for the student.

2. The teacher reads the first line of the text, accentuating appropriate phrasing and intonation.

3. Immediately, the student reads the same line, modeling the teacher's

example.

4. The teacher and the student read in echo fashion for the entire passage,

increasing the amount of text when the student can imitate the model.

Retelling

1. Before reading, the teacher explains to the students that he is going to ask them to retell the story when they have finished reading.

2. If the teacher is expecting the students to include specific information, he should tell the students before reading.

3. The teacher asks the students to retell the story as if they were telling it to a friend who has never heard it before.

4. The students tell the story.

5. If the student hesitates, the teacher can prompt.

6. When the retelling is complete, the teacher can ask direct questions about important information omitted.

Teaching Strategies for classroom and tutoring

Strategy Instruction

1. The teacher selects the new procedure to be learned.

2. The teacher talks about the strategy, what it is like, and gives some

examples.

3. The teacher explains why the strategy works when reading.

4. The teacher models the new strategy in authentic texts. This means he talks about how he reads the text, paying particular attention to the targeted strategy.

5. The students use the targeted strategy in authentic texts. They talk out loud

about their problem-solving strategies.

6. The teacher supports the “strategic thinking” of the readers. He phases it in to

coach thinking and phases it out to let students use and discuss the

strategies they used for they text interpretation.

7. Students are asked to assess their strategy deployment and how it affected

their text interpretation.

8. The teacher explains when to use the strategy and what to do if its use is not

effective.

Graphic Organizers

1. The teacher chooses a chapter from the text book.

2. The teacher selects key vocabulary words and concepts.

3. The teacher arranges the key words into a diagram that shows how the key words interrelate.

4. The teacher adds a few familiar words to the diagram so students can connect their prior knowledge with the new information.

5. The teacher presents the graphic organizer on the chalkboard or the overhead transparency. As he presents the organizer, he explains the relationships.

6. Students are encouraged to explain how they think the information is related.

7. The students read the chapter, referring to as needed, the graphic organizer.

8. After reading the selection, the students may return to the graphic organizer to clarify and elaborate concepts.

Reciprocal Teaching

1. The teacher selects a text from the content area.

2. The teacher explains the four tasks a) question generating, b) summarizing, c) clarifying the difficult parts, and d) predicting what the next section will discuss.

3. Both the teacher and the student silently read the first section of the text.

4. The teacher talks about the four tasks of reading for that section: a) He constructs several good questions, b) he constructs a summary of the section, using the main idea and supporting details, c) he clarifies difficult parts by stressing the vocabulary an organization, and d) he predicts what the next session will discuss by using the title and headings.

5. The students help revise the summary, answer the question, clarify unclear parts of the summary and the text, and evaluate the prediction (agree or disagree and give a reason for doing so).

6. After a few models by the teacher, the student takes the role of teacher. She thinks aloud, using the four steps.

7. The teacher becomes a student and assumes the student’s role.

8. Students take turn playing “teacher”.

9. Periodically the teacher reviews the four activities with the students.

10. As the students play teacher, the teacher provides feedback and encouragement.

From Lepper, M. R., Woolverton, M., Mumme, D.L., & Gurtner, J. (1993). Motivational techniques of expert human tutors: Lessons for design of computer based tutors. In S. P. Lajoie & S.J. Derry (Eds.), Computers as cognitive tools, pp75-105. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Four Motivational Goals of Successful Human Tutors

1. To enhance the learner’s level of confidence or self-efficacy.

2. To produce an appropriate level of challenge for the learner.

3. To maintain in the learner a sense of personal control.

4. To elicit from the learner a high level of curiosity.

Strategies for Enhancing Confidence and Challenge

I Maintain a sense of challenge

A. Modulate object task difficulty

1. Select appropriately difficult problems for the students

a. Proceed generally from easier to harder problems as a student’s

skills increase.

b. Modulate the difficulty level of individual problems as a function of

the student’s current level of understanding.

2. Provide scaffolding for the student.

a. Decide whether, when, and how to intervene in problem solving to

forestall or to correct errors.

b. Breakdown the problem so as to decrease the size of the steps

required for successful problem solutions.

c. Increase or decrease the specificity of hints provided to the student as a function of the student’s difficulty at a particular point.

B. Modulate subjective task difficulty

1. Emphasize the difficulty of the task.

2. Challenge the student directly.

3. Engage in playful competition with students.

II Bolster Self Confidence

A. Maximize success

1. Praise the student after success.

2. Express confidence in the student after success

3. Comment on the difficulty of the task before or after success

4. Emphasize student agency after success, portray the student as an independent problem solver.

5. Engage in playful competition with the student after the student has been successful.

B. Minimize failure

1. Reassure and commiserate with the student after failure.

2. Redefine success vs. failure (emphasize partial success).

3. Comment on the difficulty of the task.

4. Discuss explanations for causes of student failure.

5. Provide indirect feedback (ask questions, provide hints rather than explicitly label an answer incorrect).

Strategies for Enhancing Curiosity and Control

I. Evoke Curiosity

A. Make us of the “Socratic” methods

1. Select problems that themselves pose, or will later permit the tutor to

ask leading questions.

2. Ask telling questions regarding problem solution, requiring further

thought or articulation following successful performance( “How did you

figure that out”).

B. Make use of “Associative” methods

1. Present problems in real contexts that show how the knowledge being

taught might be put to use by people whom the student knows, likes, or respects.

2. Present problems in fantasy contexts that allow students to identify

with popular characters or interesting situations.

II. Promote a Sense of Personal Control

A. Increase objective control

1. Offer real choices in situations in which the tutor is not certain what

would be best for the student (additional help, using a particular

strategy, moving to harder problems).

2. Offer instructionally relevant choices (pen/pencil, color of paper,

manipulatives, character names).

3. Allow students to offer their own ideas and suggestions and comply

with reasonable ones.

4. Transfer control physically from the tutor to the child (turning

pages, writing).

B. Increase subjective control

1. Use of indirect feedback style (ask questions and provide hints

rather than give answers).

2. Create situations that provide opportunities for student control.

3. Emphasize overtly the student’s own agency in the situation.

QUESTIONING

STRATEGIES

Questioning Strategies

One of the important elements of a reading lesson is the level of questioning that is provided by the tutor. Research has shown there are different levels of thinking and the questions we ask reflect the level of thinking required of students. Below is a list of the thinking skills from the simplest to the more complex:

· Knowledge: Knowledge can be declarative (attributes, rules) or procedural (skills and processes). Items of this type are factual, content-specific, and focus on recall of critical information, concepts, and procedures.

· Sample Questions:

· When was ______?

· Who did it ______?

· What is a ______?

· Identify the ______ in the _____.

· Who is the narrator of the story?

· Organizing: Organizing is used to arrange information so it can be understood or presented more effectively.

· Sample Questions:

· What do the characters have in common?

· What conclusion have you reached about ________?

· What traits best describe the hero in the story?

· Describe… Tell how… Compare…

· Explain why ________ ?

· Applying: Applying is used to demonstrate prior knowledge within a new situation. The task is to bring together the appropriate information, generalizations or principles that are required to solve a problem.

· Sample Questions:

· What evidence is there that _____?

· Which of these would _____?

· How would you use this information for yourself _____?

· Analyzing: Analyzing is used to clarify existing information by examining parts and relationships.

· Sample Questions:

· What part of this could be real? Make-believe?

· What would be a good title for ____?

· Sort the ________.

· Compare _________ to ________. How are they alike? Different?

· What is the order of the steps in _____?

· Generating: Generating involves prior knowledge to add information beyond what is given.

· Sample Questions:

· If you had been ______ what would you have done differently?

· How many ways can you think of to ____?

· What would happen if ____?

· Predict what would be true if ____?

· How can you explain…?

· Hypothesize what would happen if ____?

· Integrating: Integrating involves putting together the relevant parts or aspects of a solution, understanding, principle, or composition.

· Sample Questions:

· How many ways can you think of to ____?

· Summarize the story in your own words.

· Devise a plan to _____?

· Evaluating: Evaluating involves assessing the reasonableness and quality of ideas.

· Sample Questions:

· Should _______ be permitted to ______? Why or why not?

· Judge what would be the best way to _________.

· Was it right or wrong for _____? Explain.

· What is the most important? Why?

· What could have been different?

As you prepare questions to use with the students you are tutoring, it is important to stretch student thinking and ask questions that require more than “yes” or “no” responses. If students are only answering questions that require little interpretation of the text, then they will continue to only answer questions at that level.

The remainder of this chapter provides you with a strategy for helping students understand the relationship between questions and answers and sample questions for you to refer to as you prepare your lesson.

Question-Answer Relationships (QAR)

Students that understand how questions are written do a better job answering questions than students who lack this understanding. It is important to teach students about question-answer relationships. There are two broad categories of questions: In the Book and In My Head.

There are two types of In the Book questions: Right There and Think and Search. Right There questions can be answered from one place in the selection. Tell the students if they can put their finger in one place in the book to answer the question, it is a Right There question. Think and Search questions involve looking in more than one place in a selection for an answer. If it takes more than one finger to point to the answer, it is a Think and Search question.

In My Head questions are divided into two categories: Author and You and On My Own. Author and You questions require students to think about what they have read. The answer is not found in the selection. Students use what they know on their own along with the information gained from reading. On My Own questions can be answered without reading the selection. When answering On My Own questions students must provide support for their answer from their own experiences and background.

QAR's can be incorporated with any reading material (i.e., magazines, poetry, narratives, expository text, textbooks, etc.). After teaching the four types of questions and using them to discuss text, begin allowing students to write their own questions for discussions. The questions asked should have students refer to the text for evidence to support their answer, and the wording of questions should be varied and require students to think about what is being asked.

The following pages give you a visual representation of Question-Answer Relationships. You may use this to make a poster for your students or to copy and give to students.
QUESTIONS which elicit higher-level thinking

1. How does this _______ compare with . . .?

2. What are some of the reasons why . . .?

3. What do you think caused . . .?

4. What are some other examples of . . .?

5. Is this _____ like anything from your own experience . . .?

6. What will happen if . . .?

7. How would things have changed if . . .?

8. Since this is true, what else can we conclude . . .?

9. If you were . . .?

10. Can you think of a new way to . . .?

11. What are some questions you might ask . . .?

12. How does that differ from . . .?

13. What is most important about . . .?

14. What would you like to know about . . .?

15. Have you ever felt . . .?

TEACHER RESPONSES to student answers

1. Explain what you mean by . . .

2. Tell me more about . . .

3. Expand on that idea . . .

4. How does that fit with what ______ said . . .

5. I hear you saying . . .

6. What makes me think of . . .

7. Does anyone want to speak to ______ about . . .

8. So what conclusions can you draw from . . .

9. What else . . .

10. Could be, yes, an interesting idea . . .

11. I wonder what______ would say about . . .

12. Can someone else tell me what ______ is saying about . . .

13. I’ve never thought of it in that way before . . .

14. Tell me more about that word . . .

15. Can you convince me that . . .

North Carolina Testing Terms Glossary

ASSESSMENT FORMATS

Multiple Choice an assessment format in which the student is asked to choose from a list of possible options the one correct or the one best response to the given question

Free Response an assessment format in which the student is asked to create a written response of the one correct answer to the given question

Open-Ended an assessment format in which the student is asked to create a written response, where the correct response may vary – there is not simply one correct answer or there is more that one strategy for arriving at the answer

Performance an assessment format in which the student is asked to apply knowledge and skills, actively; an assessment task that requires the student to create an answer or product to demonstrate his or her knowledge or skills

TERMS USED IN TEST ITEMS

DIRECTIONS/SKILLS

Analyze to separate into elemental parts or basic principles so as to determine the nature of the whole

Apply to bring together relevant information from one situation and transfer it to another similar and appropriate situation

Assume to take upon oneself; to adopt

Affect to influence the reader or cause a particular response in the reader

Compare to appraise with respect to similarities and differences with the emphasis on similarities

Contrast to appraise with respect to differences

Convey to impart or communicate by statement, suggestion, gesture, or appearance

Convince to persuade to a viewpoint based upon specific references to the passage

Describe to respond to a question or statement by representing or giving an account, which is expressed in words, in order to produce a mental image, for the reader, of something observed or experienced by the writer

Elaborate to add details, explanations, examples, or other relevant information to improve understanding

Evaluate to assess or judge the reasonableness and quality of ideas or concepts

Explain to respond to questions; to give one’s viewpoint; to defend that viewpoint through a logical progression of ideas that includes citing appropriate, specific examples

Imagine/

Pretend to form a notion or idea about something

Impression a telling image or feeling produced on the senses or the mind

Infer to go beyond the available information to identify, describe, or discuss what may reasonably be true

Justify to defend a response using specific examples and references

Predict to estimate future behavior or events based upon present and past information, i.e., likely happen, probably happen

React to give a response

Reference to cite specific information from a passage to support a viewpoint

Represent/

Show/Model to symbolize or change the form, but not the substance, of the information

Summarize to combine information efficiently and succinctly into a cohesive statement (involves condensing information, selecting what is important and discarding what is not)

EVALUATION TERMS

Approximately/

About almost the same as, close to, but not equal to, i.e., used in estimation items in mathematics

Best an evaluative term meaning exceeding all others in terms of quality and correctness

Except with the exclusion of; but; to leave out; except

Least an evaluative term meaning lowest in rank or importance; meaning smallest in degree or magnitude

Mainly an evaluative term meaning greatest in number, quantity, size, or degree; in the highest degree, quantity, or extent

Most an evaluative term meaning the principal or most important part of point

OTHER TERMS

Details individual parts of a whole; details add substance to a response

Evidence information and details presented in a given passage

Example an instance that serves to illustrate; a part of something taken to show the characteristics of the whole

Fact that which can be observed or verified; objective

Feature a characteristic of a passage

Illustration a picture or drawing

Opinion a belief or idea held with confidence but not substantiated with direct proof or knowledge

Passage a piece of material, such as a story, poem, recipe, graph, cartoon, blurb, excerpt

GRAPHIC

ORGANIZERS

Graphic Organizers

One way to improve a student’s literacy level is to develop his/her understanding of the text being read. Oral and written questioning strategies are one way to check for comprehension of the text. Another strategy to help students understand the information they have read is to use graphic organizers. There are 6 categories of graphic organizers: KWL, Directional, Illustrations, Hierarchy, Relationships, and Comparison/Contrast. A description of the categories and references to specific graphic organizers in that category is provided on the chart on the next page.

Graphic Organizers:

• Are tools students and teachers use to establish organization patterns for their thinking, writing, discussions, and reporting.

• Provide structure for recording information, ideas, or options.

• Make the content visual to learners.

• Help students remember because the graphic organizer becomes a map that makes abstract ideas more visible and concrete

• Bridge the connection between prior knowledge, what the student is doing today, and what they can apply and transfer to other things.

Graphic organizers should align with the purpose of the assignment and the skill you are reinforcing. For example, if a student has difficulty understanding the sequence of events in a narrative, then a story plan, which is a directional graphic organizer, should be used.

KNOW / WANT / LEARNED (KWL)

Know / Want / Learned is a strategy that models the active thinking needed when reading new material or participating in a learning activity. It encourages the student to think about ideas and to ask questions while reading. The letters KWL represent what students KNOW about a topic, what they WANT to find out or learn, and what they LEARNED as they read. The strategy is a five-step process that may be used across the curriculum, at all grade levels, with any size group or with a whole class.

Step 1 – Preparation: The teacher determines a key concept for the material to be studied.

Step 2 – Group Instruction: Students brainstorm what they already KNOW about the topic and try to create general categories as two or more pieces of information grouped together under a category. The teacher models the thinking-aloud process while identifying, combining, and categorizing information. The teacher asks students to think about the categories of information they would expect to find, and these are listed so that students see them.

Step 3 – Individual Questions: Individual students record what they feel confident they KNOW about the concept under “What I Know” on the KWL Chart. Under “What I Want to Find Out,” students list questions or information they might want to learn. Students are encouraged to generate questions from information gleaned as they brainstormed and as they read.

Step 4 – Reading the Text: The text should be divided into manageable segments based on the student’s needs and abilities. Some students may be able to read only one or two paragraphs. The intent is for the student to monitor comprehension by referring to the questions listed. In this way, students become aware of what they learn. They should jot down the answers to their questions as well as new questions under “What I Learned.”

K – What I Know	W – What I Want to find Out	L- What I Learned
Had ceremonies Ate berries Lived in America Lived in teepees Hunted Made canoes	Did Indians live in one place? Did they use stone tools? Did they domesticate the dog? Did they believe in spirits? How did they make pottery?	Many different tribes in America Used different kinds of tools Rode horses, had dogs Cooked many dishes Lived off the land Had sophisticated religion

Step 5 – Reflection: Engage the students in a discussion about what they learned from reading. When all questions have been answered, the student’s summary of the material may be a starting point for a writing assignment.

A blank KWL chart is provided in the Appendix.

Boysen, Commissioner Thomas C., Transformations: Kentucky’s Curriculum Framework. Pages 114-115. 1993. Frankfort, Kentucky: Kentucky Department of Education.

Time Lines

Time Lines may be used with fiction and non-fiction text. When reading fiction a timeline may be used to record the events of the day or the week. If the story covers a longer period of time monthly events may be recorded. For example, if you are reading The Flunking of Joshua T. Bates you could use a time line to record the events of a day at school.

Non-fiction materials, such as, biographies or autobiographies, are easily adapted to time lines. As events occur in a person's life specific dates can be recorded.

When using a timeline it is important to have students’ record when the event happened and give a brief description of the event. Pictures may be a part of the description. You may want to complete a part of the timeline after reading each chapter or several chapters, instead of waiting to complete the book.

A blank time line is provided in the Appendix.

Parks, S. and H. Black. Organizing Thinking. Pacific Grove, CA: Critical Thinking Press and Software, 1992.

Story Maps

Story maps are typically used with fiction material. When reading a short story or book a story map may be completed after you have finished reading. Longer books may need story maps completed at the end of a chapter or after several chapters.

Story maps may ask students to give information about the characters, name and description, and the setting, where and when. Story maps provide a place for students to record the main events of the chapter in the order in which they took place. Students may include illustrations and/or written descriptions.

There are many types of story maps; below is an example of a completed map. The Appendix has sample story maps that you may choose to use with your students. Talk with the teacher you are working with to see if he/she has a preference of which story map to use.

Diagrams

Diagrams may be used with non-fiction materials. Diagrams must include a caption and labels for the illustration. Students may refer to diagrams in reference materials to help them understand the parts of a diagram.

If students have read how blood flows through the heart they could draw a diagram of the heart, with the parts of the heart labeled, and show the path blood follows as it goes through the heart. Below is a sample diagram of how an atoll is formed; notice that the diagram has a title and the pictures have an explanation.

Character Maps

Character maps may be used with fiction or biographical / auto-biographical text. In the center of the paper students draw the character, then around the character pictures are drawn that describe the character. Beside each picture is a word or phrase that tells the characteristic being illustrated. The character map can be added to after reading a chapter or several chapters. Sometimes throughout a book a character will change, if this happens you may want students to draw a second character map with the new characteristics. Then by placing the maps side by side students can see the change in a character.

Concept Maps

Concept maps are a pictorial representation of the relationship among ideas. Mapping works well to help students organize information and ideas.

1. Before reading choose a word or concept that relates to the topic and write it in the center of the map.

2. Have students brainstorm what they know about the topic. List their ideas on a separate piece of paper.

3. With the students categorize the information from the brainstormed list and place the categories around the topic.

4. Place the ideas from brainstorming into the appropriate categories.

5. Read a part of the selection or all of the selection and add new information to the map. New information and/or concepts can be added as students are reading or after reading is completed.

Venn Diagrams

A Venn Diagram is a structure that shows how 2 topics are related through their similarities and differences. Characters, settings, stories, ideas, and topics may be used with a Venn Diagram. To make a Venn Diagram draw two circles with an area of overlap. The overlapped area is where similar traits are to be recorded. The area of the circle not overlapped is where the traits that are different are recorded. This organizer may be used as a post-reading activity.

A blank Venn Diagram is provided in the Appendix.

Sociograms

Sociograms are used to show relationships among characters. On a sheet of paper record the names of the main characters with a circle around each name. Then choose two characters and ask students to tell how the characters feel about one another or relate to one another. Draw a line between the two characters and on the line write a word or phrase that describes the relationship. If the description describes the way both characters feel, draw arrows on both ends of the line. The example at the bottom of the page shows that Papa and Sarah respect one another, so an arrow is drawn at both ends of the line. If the description is appropriate for only one of the characters, then an arrow is drawn to show which character has that feeling. Below, Anna feels that Caleb is pesky, so at the end of the line an arrow is drawn just for Anna.

You may want to assign a color for each character; and when you draw an arrow for that character, use his/her color. You may also want to use color to show the change in a relationship over time. In the example below, Sarah and Papa had respect for one another at the beginning of the book, so the line could have been drawn in blue. At the end of the book Sarah and Papa have fallen in love, this line could have been drawn in red.

Compare and Contrast Diagram

1. After reading choose two concepts or characters and write them in the blanks at the top.

2. Then have students record phrases which show the similarities in the "How Alike" box.

3. In the "with regard to" section write the quality being compared. This section is to be completed by the tutor, not the student.

4. Record phrases that tell the differences in each "How Different" box.

A blank Compare and Contrast Diagram is in the Appendix.

DISCUSSION

STRATEGIES

Discussion Strategies

One of the most challenging tasks a tutor will face is involving ALL students in the discussion of the text. It is important that everyone has an opportunity to share his or her answers, thoughts, and opinions. The following strategies are suggestions of ways to involve all students in a discussion.

Rally Robin

This strategy allows students to work in pairs and take turns talking. Assign each student a letter A or B. After asking a question, tell student A he/she will begin the Rally Robin. Student A will make a statement, then student B would respond. This sequence continues until you call time. If you have four students, you would have 2 pairs talking simultaneously.

Rally Table

This strategy is designed like Rally Robin, but instead of talking the students take turns writing. This would work well as a pre-reading strategy. If you were reading about the landforms of Africa and you wanted to see what the students know about this topic, ask student A to start the list and add one thing he/she knows. Then student B would write. Students would hand the paper back and forth until you called time.

Round Robin

This strategy involves all the students in a group sharing with one another. In a Round Robin discussion all students must respond and listen. If you are discussing a character in a novel, ask the group to Round Robin discuss why they think a character behaved in a certain manner. The discussion would begin with a chosen student, the student on his/her left would respond next, and this would continue until you called time. The discussion could go around more than once. While a student is talking, no other student may comment or ask a question until it is their turn.

Round Table

This strategy is like Round Robin, but instead of answering orally students will write. Your group has just finished reading about Canada and you want to see what they remember. Give one student a sheet of paper. Tell the students you want each person to list one thing they remember from the reading selection, but they cannot write what someone else has written. The first person writes one thing and hands the paper to the person on the left. The rotation continues until you call time.

Think Pair Share

After asking a question have students think about a response. After 30-45 seconds of think time ask students to share with a partner their response. Then the pairs can share with the entire group.

Numbered Heads Together

Assign each student a number, if you have 3 students use the numbers 1, 2, and 3. After asking a question have the students huddle to discuss the question to make sure all students can respond. Call out a number and have that student respond.

APPENDIX

References

Graves, M. and B. Graves. Scaffolding Reading Experiences. Norwood, MA:

Christopher-Gordon Publishers, Inc., 1994.

Morris, Darrell. Case Studies in Teaching Beginning Readers: The Howard Street

Tutoring Manual. Boone, NC: Fieldstream Publications, 1992.

Parks, S. and H. Black. Organizing Thinking. Pacific Grove, CA: Critical Thinking

Press and Software, 1992.

Santa, C.,L. Havens, E. Maycumber. Creating Independence Through Student-

owned Strategies.Dubuque, IA: Kendall Hurt Publishing Company, 1996.

Thonpson, Max and J. Thomason. Learning Focused K-5 Schools: A High

Achievement Project. Boone, NC: Learning Concepts, Inc., 1996.